Acadia National Park

 

A Peaceful Paradise

In the American State of Maine, located near the State of New York; is the location of the Acadia National Park. The biggest island is that of Mount Desert Island but there are also a lot of smaller islands in the park. This just sits off the Atlantic coast; however Acadia wasn’t always the name of the park. It was firstly known as the Lafayette National Park back in 1919. It was the oldest park to the east of the Mississippi river; and the park was eventually renamed to the Acadia a decade later in 1929.

However, years ago, Acadia was inhabited by humans. It was John Rockefeller Jr who designed, directed and even financed the work of the carriage trail through the park. He was the man to put up the money to help create the trails so that anyone could enjoy a tour through the park. Rockefeller created the 17 granite bridges, as well as the trails and the two gate lodges – they are all in use today and have been highly maintained also.

The Fire Of 1947

In 1947, on the 17th of October, almost 10,000 acres across the park was destroyed by a huge fire that erupted. The fire started at the Crooked Road which is only a few miles away from Hulls Cove. This was a huge forest fire that was started because of the dry weather the area had and it continued all the way through until November, the 14th of the month to be exact. During this time however, the Navy, Army, Coast Guard and local residents were all on hand to help control the blaze; though the National Park Service also helped to control the blaze.

After the fire, there was a huge restoration program set up. Mostly the Rockefeller family helped the restoration program; but most of the regrowth program was natural. Some say that the fire helped to add beauty to the park. However, the fire did help to bring diversity to the population of trees because more were grown since the fire.

Throughout the years however, there have been many different groups of people who wish to restore some of the parts of the park which need care and attention. The Friends of Acadia program was launched in 1986 and this helped to restore the road system throughout the park. Of course many visitors come here every year so good roads and safety are vital.

Bass Harbor Lighthouse, Acadia National Park.

The Terrain of Acadia National Park

The terrains in the national park include things such as oceanic shorelines, lakes, wood lands and mountain ranges. Mount Desert Island isn’t the only island in the park as there is also the Baker Island. There is the Isle au Haut and the Schoodic Peninsula which is located on the mainland of the park. There is almost 47000 acres across the park and the Mount Desert Island is where a large part of the land is found – almost 30,300 acres.

Though, the Cadillac Mountain range is certainly going to be one of the more popular spots of the park. The mountain was named after the explorer Cadillac; and the mountain can be found on the east part of Mount Desert Island. Though a lot of the roads were built; and the mountains throughout Acadia National Park give the chance for those who love to ride a bike or hike, to be able to enjoy the scenery also. There are some spectacular views of the many island lakes, the pine forests and of course the ocean. There are almost two million visitors that come to the park yearly.

Acadia National Park does have many different species of wild life including;

-The bobcat

-Black bears

-Red squirrels

-Grey squirrels

-The white tailed deer

-Chipmunks

-The beavers

-Moose

-Foxes

-The coyote

-The porcupine

-Muskrats

There are however a lot of different types of specify out there also and numerous marine life also.

The explorations and excavations of the Mount Desert Island have shown remains of some native mammals. Things such as the bones of;

-The Elk

-The Grey Seal

-The Indian Dog

-The Wolf

-Deer

-The Beaver

-Sea Mink Which Are Extinct

-Muskrat

-Lynx

-Raccoon

However, beavers were introduced back into the island in 1920. There were two pairs of beavers released back onto the island and have since repopulated the island. Though, in 1947, there was a large fire which destroyed almost half of all of the trees on the island. This did make way for trees such as birch, aspen, maple, alder and a lot of other deciduous trees in the area. This really helped the beaver population to build and become stronger.

Acadia National Park Landscape

There were once the grey wolf and the puma or mountain lion as it is also known as, found in the park. However, it is thought that these animals have been forced out of the park because of the fact that smaller animals or prey in the park has decreased. It is also thought that human activity near the park may have caused the decrease with the mountain lion and grey wolf.

There are many different parts of the Acadia National Park to visit including;

-The Eagle Lake

-Schooner Head

-The Bear Brook Picnic Area

-The Schoodic Peninsula

-Visitors Can Sail Along The Coastline

-View The Amazing Cadillac Mountain

-Visit Jordan Pond

-Visit The Beautiful Thunder Hole

-Enjoy The Sand Beach

-Climbing To The Summit Of Mount Penobscot

There are so many different attractions to visit while in the park and no matter what sort of day it is, there is going to be something for everyone. This is why the Acadia National Park is a popular choice for many and why more and more visitors flock to the park every year. It is truly a lovely and beautiful area to visit.

Gamma-Ray Burst

 

Flashes of gamma-rays which are associated with highly energetic explosions are known as gamma-ray bursts. These bursts have been noticed in distant galaxies and are the the brightest electromagnetic events known to man in the universe. These bursts can last anywhere from 10 milliseconds to a few minutes. Usually, a longer-lived “afterglow” follows the first burst, which then comes in longer wavelengths.

Early discovery of gamma-ray bursts

The discovery of gamma-rays happened almost by accident. The satellites which detected the rays had been built to detect nuclear weapons testing during the time of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Not sure what was causing the rays that were showing up on the satellites, the team filed the data away. After newer, more sophisticated satellites were launched, more of these rays continued to show up. After analysing the data, it became clear that the gamma-rays were not from nuclear testing or even from solar activity. The findings were published in 1973 in an article titled, “Observations of Gamma-Ray Bursts of Cosmic Origin”.

Even though astronomers and scientists have been studying gamma-rays rays since that time, they are still unable to accurately pinpoint the origin of the gamma-ray explosions. Some suggest they come from outside the Milky Way, but at this time, there is no way to be sure.

What causes gamma-ray bursts?

Because gamma-ray bursts happen so far away, it’s difficult for astronomers to be sure what exactly causes the bursts. Most are believed to be made up of a narrow beam of intense radiation which is released during a supernova. This is a high-mass star rotating at high speeds, which collapses and forms a black hole, neutron star, or quark star. While it is currently speculation, it’s possible that the entire crust of a star could shatter due to the development of a resonance between the core and crust. This is a result of huge tidal forces which stars experience in the seconds shortly before their collision.

Study of gamma-rays suggest that the blasts are not only extremely far away, but also very energetic and most likely immensely rare.

Classification of gamma-ray bursts

Unlike nova or supernova, which follow a structure of a bright burst of light which eventually fades out, the light curves of gamma-rays are unpredictable, diverse, and complex. There are no two gamma-ray bursts which are exactly the same. Some bursts have several high peaks, while others have a single peak only. Some show a very weak burst, followed by a very large burst after a short period of inactivity. Some gamma-ray bursts show highly chaotic and irrational profiles with no logical explanation.

The study of gamma-ray bursts does put them into 2 main categories: Long gamma-ray bursts and short gamma-ray bursts.

—Long gamma-ray ray bursts exceed 2 seconds. Most gamma-ray bursts are in this category. A very long burst—over 2 ½ months long—was tracked, but none that long was seen since.

—Short gamma-ray bursts are less than 2 seconds. It is unclear what causes these short bursts, but since 2005, the afterglow of these short bursts has been able to be studied, giving astronomers more detail on what these little bursts could be.

Effects of gamma-ray bursts

Right now, there is no danger to earth from gamma-ray bursts. They are much too far away to be of concern, though astronomers are speculating on the possibility of nearer stars colliding and the impact it could have on the earth’s atmosphere. Depending on how far or close it happens, the hypothetical effects would be devastating.

 

Yellowstone National Park

  

A national emblem

The Yellowstone National Park has fast become a worldwide known name. In 1872, the American President, Ulysses S. Grant passed a law that stated Yellowstone was to become the first national park in America and in fact the world. It can be found mostly in the State of Wyoming; however, the park actually extends through into Idaho and even Montana so you may be able to understand how large this national park really is.

Yellowstone National Park is known for its vast wildlife as well as the many amazing features it has including the Old Faithful Geyser; this has fast become a popular feature for many. Though, strangely, Yellowstone also has a vast ecosystem; it has several to be exact and there is a subalpine forest which is the dominant of all ecosystems.

The Early Life of Yellowstone

Many do not know that for almost over 10,000 years, Yellowstone was actually the home to many Native Americans and that the region of Yellowstone was very much unknown for many years. It was a vast region that was very much unexplored or discovered even during the Expedition mission of Lewis and Clark which was in the 19th century, the early part of the century. However, the region was visited occasionally by the mountain men during the early and mid part of the 19th century.

It wasn’t until the late 1860’s when there was actually an organized exploration date set of Yellowstone. It was the American Army who was brought in to oversee things in the park. However, in 1917, the administration of the park was handed over; control was passed over to the National Park Service created in 1916. Since the early 1900’s, there have been many structures erected to help protect the historical features and architectural history of the Yellowstone National Park. What is more, over one thousand different archaeological sites have also been discovered and examined by researches since 1917.

Grand Prismatic Spring

The Vastness of Yellowstone

Yellowstone is actually extremely large as it can span over a huge area of 8, 980 KM2; this is three thousand, four hundred and sixty eight point four square miles. This is a vast area to explore and there are many canyons, mountain ranges, rivers and of course lakes that make up Yellowstone. It is a beautiful area to explore and it holds so many secrets because even though it was discovered in the 1800’s, still so much is unknown.

The Yellowstone Lake is considered to be one of the few largest lakes that are high altitude lakes throughout North America. The largest super volcano can also be found on the North American continent – the Yellowstone Caldera. This is a fantastic feature of Yellowstone but it is still an active volcano. It has erupted thousand years ago and the force of the eruptions has all been very wild and very dangerous.

The Yellowstone Caldera actually covers most of the land area of Yellowstone; this is from the rocks from the volcano as well as the lava flow which also comes during the eruptions. What is more, almost 50% of the world’s geothermal factors come from Yellowstone and are found in Yellowstone. This is because of the volcano which creates a lot of friction and volcanism also.

However, the centrepiece of the National Park has to be the world’s bigger ecosystem – the Greater Yellowstone ecosystem. It is the biggest in the North Temperate Zone on Earth. The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is almost intact and is considered to be the largest of all ecosystems.

Though, in Yellowstone, there are dozens of different species of fish, reptiles, birds and mammals. There are hundreds in fact and many of them have been studied and documented by the authorities. There are several species which are considered to be endangered; and there might still be species out there that is undiscovered.

Though, the grasslands and forests are tremendous as they are very large and there are endless species of plants which are considered to be unique also. There are many different types of animals found in the park including herds of elk and bison – which are free and unkempt; and there are also wolves and grizzly bears that can be found in Yellowstone. This is their home and they are undisturbed by many who visit; and the bison herd in the park is actually the oldest herd found in America today.

Mostly each year, there will be a forest fire that breaks out. This can occur and one of the biggest fires was in 1988 in which almost a third of the entire park was damaged and burnt. Though, the park is considered to be safe as there are many recreational activities to complete.

– Boating

– Fishing

– Sightseeing

– Hiking

– Camping

Bison in Yellowstone National Park

These are only a few examples of recreational activities. However the park does have millions of visitors each year including tourists and local parties also. There are many good paved roads which allow visitors to easily access the various areas of the park. They can take visitors to the beautiful sights of the waterfalls the park has and of course some of the most amazing lakes also. During the winter time however, most of the visitors are going to use snow mobiles or snow coaches to visit the park and delve deeper into the park also.

However, in the very early life of the park, there were many who wanted to reduce the overall size of the park. Many wanted to be able to use some of the land that Yellowstone covered for things such as hunting, logging, mining and many other activities could go ahead. However, that was when the American government got involved; though it was difficult to prevent anything happening to the park as there was very little money available.

Today, the Yellowstone National Park is a national icon and something which is very popular. It is a natural beauty and something that is very spectacular indeed with many amazing features to view as well as history found here.

Climate Elements

 

What is climate?

The climate is a concept used by most people, but its definition is not always well known. In simple terms, the climate is the average weather conditions of an area during a long time, which are the result of several factors present in that zone. The climate varies from one region to another but must follow a fairly consistent pattern.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the climate is the statistical description of the mean and variability of the weather over a span of time ranging from months to thousands or even millions of years. All this means, the average weather during a long time.

The UK Meteorological Office’s glossary mentions that the climate of a locality is the synthesis of the values of the day-to-day weather elements affecting that place. The word climate comes from the Greek word “klima” which means “area.”

The climate factors measured are rainfall, maximum, and minimum temperatures during a season, humidity, sunshine time, and so on.

What factors influence climate?

Latitude, altitude, topography, water bodies and other factors determine the climate of a geographic region. The angle of the sun’s rays, for example, affects how warm the environment is. People living in the tropics knows that certain days of the year the sun is positioned directly above his head at noon, causing a hot climate with small temperature changes between summer and winter.

The UK Meteorological Office lists the following influence factors of the climate of a zone: altitude, prevailing wind, distance from the sea, oceanic currents, topography, vegetation, and type of area (urban or rural).

What are the elements of climate?

Various elements make up the climate of a region, but the following are the most common:

Temperature
.
Temperature is the amount of heat energy that is in the air. Its measure unit is Celsius degrees or Fahrenheit degrees in some countries. Heat is the energy radiated from the Sun to the Earth in the form of light. Clouds, water vapor, and atmospheric dust deflect about half of the solar energy back into space, while the rest is absorbed by the soil and water and becomes heat.

The temperature is characterized by its variation during a day due to Earth’s rotation and during the annual seasons due to the translational motion of the Earth around the sun.

Precipitation.
It is a process that ends with the fall of water, in liquid or solid form, to the earth’s surface. A large percentage of rainfall drains into lakes and rivers while the rest evaporates from the earth’s surface or passes through plants. The latter process is known as evapotranspiration and is part of the water cycle.

Humidity
.
It is the water vapor contained in the air. Its amount varies according to to the amount of rainfall and solar radiation in a zone. 
Water vapor is present in any region of the world, even the hottest ones. As the temperature increases, so does the possibility of having water vapor.

Atmospheric pressure.
It is the force exerted on a given surface due to the weight of the atmosphere. It varies vertically; the values decrease as you ascend in altitude.

Cloudiness.

The number of clouds in the atmosphere is also an element of climate. Clouds form when humid air cools down to its dew point, and water droplets or ice attach to small particles of dust, ash, or other contaminants.

Wind.

The Wind is the moving air. It causes variations in climate by drying humidity, causing storms, and contributing to water evaporation.

Solar radiation.

Although it is an unseen element, it significantly impacts climate by providing heat. The amount of sunlight the ground receives is called insolation.

Quick Facts.

Estimations determine that the average surface air temperature will increase between 1.4°C and 5.8°C by 2100.

Rainfall and water vapor are also expected to increase along with this warming.

Pacific Ring Of Fire

Pacific Ring Of Fire Facts

The Pacific Ring of Fire is the name that is given to a horseshoe shaped area in the Pacific Ocean which extends from South America and North America to Eastern Asia, Australia and New Zealand. This area is famous for its constant seismic activity and because of the amount of active volcanoes that can be found here. 75% of dormant and active volcanoes are found in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Now it is known that the area is very close to several tectonic plates which may be what influences the violent activity in the area.

Volcanoes In The Area

It is believed that the Pacific Ring of Fire has a total of 452 volcanoes. Some of the world’s most active volcanoes are found here. Kilauea which is considered the most active volcano in the world is located in the Pacific Ring of Fire. Other volcanoes worth noting are Mt Fuji in Japan, Mt. Saint Helens and Mt. Rainier in the American North West, Krakatoa in Indonesia, Mauna Loa in Hawaii, Galeras in Colombia and Sangay in Ecuador. Those are all volcanoes that are well known and some that could be very dangerous to the population nearby.

Most Dangerous Volcanoes

Because of all the activity in the Pacific Ring of Fire it is very possible that one of those volcanoes could cause a lot of trouble for a lot of people. If Mt Rainier were to erupt for example the 2.5 million people in the area near Seattle and Tacoma would have to evacuate fast. Adding to the danger is the snowy cap of the volcano which could make the dangers much worse.

The Santa Maria Volcano in Guatemala has already shown its power with one of the most catastrophic eruptions in the 20^th century taking place in 1902. Back then the volcano affected a very large part of the south west of the country; today with many more people in the area the impact of this volcano in the Pacific Ring of Fire could be much greater.

Mount Yasur in Vanuatu is what’s called a stratovolcano and it has been erupting for close to a hundred years. The dangers that Mount Yasur presents are real, and yet tourists risk the dangers of toxic gases and lava flows by getting to the crater every day. This volcano has already taking a few lives from tourists and a tour guide who got too close to the danger zone.

Constant Changes

The Pacific Ring of Fire is different today than it was thousands of years ago because of the changes caused by tectonic plates. The Pacific Plate will hit other plates nearby and that causes them to sink. The crust melts producing the magma that feeds the different volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire or it will help produce new volcanoes. The tectonic plates are also the reason for the many violent earthquakes in the entire area of the pacific.

Risks

If you are in a city that is located in the Pacific Ring of Fire then you already know that there are several risk factors that you have to be ready for. Close to 90 percent of the earthquakes reported around the world take place in the Ring of Fire. Add to that the possibility of volcano eruptions and that can really be a dangerous area to live in. People not only have to look at the active volcanoes as the dormant ones also pose a threat. Mt. Saint Helens was a dormant volcano before its eruption in 1980 which caused several deaths and over a billion dollars in damage.

 

Thunderstorm

  

What Is A Thunderstorm?

Thunderstorms are some of the most frightening and powerful storms to hit the world.  A thunderstorm can be known as a lightning storm, a thundershower or even an electrical storm.  A thunderstorm is one of the most powerful storms to hit and it forms when the weather is turbulent.  This is when the wind picks up greatly and rain is present, though this doesn’t always need to be present.  However, lightning and the noise of thunder creates the thunderstorms and if there are certain types of clouds in the sky – cumulonimbus, then it could result in thunderstorms.

On most occasions, thunderstorms will bring on heavy rain falls and strong winds.  However, these are the most common types of weather associated with thunderstorms but there are other types of weather that can accompany a thunderstorm.  Things such as hail, sleet and snow are all common factors to present itself during a thunderstorm.  Some thunderstorms can rotate, if they are quite severe, then they can create supercells which are some of the worst thunderstorms.

How Thunderstorms Are Are Created?

A thunderstorm can be created because of a sharp or rapid surge of moist and warm air.  However, as the warm and moist air moves upwards into the air, it will cool down and condenses.  When the air does this, the air will form new cumulonimbus clouds.  These cumulonimbus clouds can in fact reach huge heights of almost 20 kilometres, sometimes much more than that.

Once the air reaches a certain point, at the dew point, ice and water droplets are going to form and start falling towards the earth and the earth’s surface.  It falls from a large distance; however, once the droplets fall, they will be larger because they join up with other droplets.  Once the droplets are falling, they will create a new downdraft of the air which will spread out vastly across the surface.  This creates winds – strong winds which coincide with thunderstorms.

• Hail
• Rain
• Strong Winds
• Snow
• Sleet

These are some of the things to spot when it comes to thunderstorms.

Lightning and church

Where Can Thunderstorm Form?

A thunderstorm can be formed or created in almost any location around the world.  Though, the countries that are mid latitude – this is when the air is moist and warm but comes into contact with cool air.  Thunderstorms can form anywhere if the air is warm and moist and comes into cooler air.  Though, most thunderstorms can be very severe and can cause a lot of damage to landscapes and populated areas also.

Though, most damage that comes from a thunderstorm is due to the larger hailstones which fall with the storm and the down burst winds.  Though, on occasion, there have been flash floods to cause a lot of damage.  Though, with some thunderstorm formations, they can be very strong or – super cells as they can also be known as, and cause water sprouts and even tornadoes.  There are some instances which are not going to be too severe and won’t be anything more than a small rain shower.  Some thunderstorm cells which are stronger than average storms can be fifty times the energy of an a bomb.

The Different Types of Thunderstorms

There are however four different types of thunderstorms including;

1. Supercells which are the most powerful thunderstorms available
2. A single cell which are smaller and not too severe
3. A multi cell cluster which is stronger than a single cell storm
4. Multi cell lines which are just below a super cell

The super cells are the strongest of thunderstorms that form; and if the thunderstorms are present in the tropics, it could contribute to hurricanes.  However, there are also dry thunderstorms which don’t cause any rain, hail or snow fall, but they can cause wildfire outbreaks.  This happens because of the lightning that occurs; there might not be any hail or rain but lightning still occurs and causes wildfires.

Many weather observers use things such as weather stations and weather radar to help keep a close eye over pending weather storms including thunder.  Interesting though, it has been known for some thunderstorms, can be created on both Venus and Jupiter and not just here on Earth.

The Cycle of a Thunderstorm

The cycle of a thunderstorm firstly starts off with warm air.  The warm air needs to have a lower density than cooler air because the air will start to rise actually within the cool air.  When this happens, clouds will start to form and they will become a little warmer because inside the clouds, it will now carry moisture.

The moisture will condense and when it does, it will release energy out; however, what this does is to cool the air of the condensed air but the surrounding air will stay the same.  If there is instability in the atmosphere then it will create cumulonimbus clouds and that helps to create thunder and lightning.  However, for thunderstorms to form, they need moisture, unstable air mass and a lifting force such as heat to create a thunderstorm.

There are different stages to create a thunderstorm.  There is the developing stage, then the mature stag and finally the dissipation stage.  Though, the thunderstorms can vary from size but for the average storm, it is around 24 kilometres.  The period of time in which the thunderstorms can develop is anything from thirty minutes.

Thundershower, electrical storm or thunderstorm.

When the thunderstorm hits the cumulus stage, or the developing stage; a mass of moisture will be taken up towards the atmosphere.  When the moisture goes into the air, the wind will be forced upwards into the atmosphere and will help to develop the thunderstorm.  However, the moisture will start cooling and this will form water drops because of the cool temperatures at a high altitude.

With the mature stage, the air which is now warm will rise further up and will continue to do so until it cannot rise any further and the air becomes at its warmest point.  When it reaches this point, the air will be forced out a vast area and will start to create an anvil shape creating the cumulonimbus clouds.  The water drops will then start to grow larger because they will join up with one another.  They will now be heavier and larger and will start to freeze into ice particles.  Though, as the ice falls, it will become, or rather melt, into rain.

With the final or dissipating stage, the thunderstorm is created.  A downdraft will work up and hit the ground quickly and spread out vastly also.  This can be known as a downburst and the cool air will then cut the inflow and stop the thunderstorm also.  The thunderstorm will dissipate.

The super cell storms are the biggest and the most severe storms to hit.  This is when the super cell storms have different up and down drafts causing the super cell.  It can stretch out to a vast area and can cause a lot of devastation and damage.  When the super cells are created, it will mean that the storms will be accompanied with severe weather.

Indian Ocean

 

The Indian Ocean is the third largest, after the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. It extends over approximately 9,978 kilometers from southern Africa to Western Australia and is almost six times the size of the United States. Its boundaries include Asia in the north, Africa in the west, Australia in the east, and the Antarctic or the Southern Ocean in the south.

This body of water covers about 19.5 percent of the total water on Earth, or in other words, one-fifth. It covers 13.8 percent of the Earth’s surface. It has an area of 70.56 million square kilometers and includes:
– the Andaman Sea,
– The Arabian Sea,
– the Bay of Bengal,
– the Flores Sea,
– the Great Australian Bight,
– the Gulf of Aden,
– the Gulf of Oman,
– the Java Sea,
– the Mozambique channel,
– the Persian Gulf,
– the Red Sea,
– the Savu Sea,
– the Strait of Malacca, and
– The Timor Sea.
It connects with the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal.
Its volume is 292,131,000 cubic kilometers. Its average depth is around 3,890 meters, and its deepest point is the Java Trench or Sunda Trench, measuring between 7,258 and 7,725 meters. However, sometimes it is mentioned that the Diamantina Trench is the deepest part of this ocean, slightly deeper, about 8,047 meters.
The highest level of salinity is in the Arabian Sea and along a belt of water.

Properties of the Indian Ocean.

The water salinity in the Indian Ocean is between 3.2 and 3.7 percent. The highest level of salinity is in the Arabian Sea and along a belt of water located between southern Africa and southwestern Australia. It is common to see icebergs at latitude 65° south throughout the year, but their limit is latitude 45° south.
Its surface temperature at latitude 20° south is about 22°C, while in the east can exceed 28°C. From latitude 40° south, water temperatures decrease. Incoming flows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, and Antarctic currents control the circulation of water, but the ocean has two basic flow patterns: the northern hemisphere current, which moves to the right, and another stream south of the equator, which moves in the opposite direction.
The weather is variable. North of the equator, it is dominated by a monsoon climate, but in the southern hemisphere, winds are weaker, with occasional summer storms that hit the Mauritius Island. From October to April, there are high winds in the Northeast. The monsoon season causes cyclones that can batter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.

This ocean is more recent than the others, so there are crags and ridges in its floor. The South Kerguelen Plateau, a small underwater continent of volcanic origin, is in the south. In the west and near Madagascar, there is an underwater plateau whose length is 2,000 kilometers.

Economic Importance of the Indian Ocean.

The Indian Ocean contains a significant amount of oil and natural gas and is also a source of fish, sand, and metal, relevant to different industries. It has four main waterways: Bab-el-Mandeb, the Strait of Hormuz, the Straits of Malacca, and the Suez Canal.

40 percent of the world’s offshore oil production has its origin in the Indian Ocean.
Marine life is relatively limited in the Indian Ocean due to lower concentrations of phytoplankton. However, the northern part of this ocean is home to a larger number of species, which are essential for human consumption. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, Taiwan and South Korea navigate this ocean catching shrimp and tuna.
Moreover, there is a continuous traffic carrying oil from Indonesia and the Persian Gulf, with an average of 17 million barrels of oil per day. In fact, 40 percent of the world’s offshore oil production has its origin in the Indian Ocean.

Conservation of the Indian Ocean.

In the late 90’s, a huge quantity of trash was found, suspended on the surface of the Indian Ocean. Thousands of plastic particles, chemical substances, and other garbage are concentrated there, covering about 10 million square kilometers. Meanwhile, the Arabian and Red Seas and the Persian Gulf are contaminated with hydrocarbons from oil and gas.
The ocean is home to some endangered species: the dugong, whales, seals, and turtles.

Quick facts:
• It is the warmest ocean basin on Earth.
• Annually, more than 7,000 humpback whales travel to the waters of Madagascar to breed and give birth.
• The world’s earliest civilizations developed around the Indian Ocean.
• In Sanskrit literature, it is known as “Ratnakara” which means “gemstone mine.”

Deforestation spikes in Brazilian Amazon

Illegal land clearing hits highest levels since 2008 as environmental policies come under attack.

Illegal deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon has spiked since 2015, bringing the rate to its highest level in 8 years. The finding has raised fears that the country could lose a decade’s worth of progress in forest protection.

In an analysis of satellite data released on 29 November, Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research (INPE) in São José dos Campos estimates that 7,989 square kilometres of land — nearly the size of Puerto Rico — was cleared between August 2015 and July 2016. The total was 29% above the previous year and 75% above the 2012 level, when deforestation hit a historic low of 4,571 square kilometres

The current trends illustrate a growing sense of impunity as well as betrayal among landowners who have yet to benefit from the sustainable-development agenda, says Daniel Nepstad, a tropical ecologist who heads the Earth Innovation Institute, an environmental organization in San Francisco, California. “There’s been a lot of talk about improving the lives and the bottom lines of farmers and ranchers if they stop clearing the forest,” Nepstad says, “and they are still waiting.”

Brazil basked in the international limelight for nearly a decade after deforestation began to drop in 2005, thanks in part to stronger government enforcement as well as high-profile commitments to halt deforestation by the beef and soya-bean industries. But the government’s success sparked a political backlash. The Brazilian Congress relaxed the country’s forest protections in 2012, and many Brazilian lawmakers are pushing to further relax environmental laws to promote development across the Amazon.
Meanwhile, the country has been rocked by economic recession and ongoing political-corruption scandals. This has diverted both money and attention away from environmental enforcement, emboldening ranchers and illegal land traders to resume clearing land, says Paulo Barreto, a senior researcher at the Amazon Institute of People and the Environment, an activist group in Belém.
Barreto notes that beef prices have risen, as has the size of the forest tracts that are being cleared — a sign that the major players are investing in illegal deforestation. With the Brazilian government as weak as it is, Barreto says that he hopes the beef industry in particular will bolster its efforts to prevent the sale of cattle from newly cleared land.
This would be an act of self-interest, he adds, because the industry's public image, at home and abroad, depends on Brazil's continued success in protecting the Amazon. “In the end, this is bad for Brazil, not only in environmental terms but also in terms of agricultural markets.”
 

Take on Nature: Roots of the robin's close ties with festive season 

 

AS WE enter December or decem, Latin for 10, originally the tenth month of the Roman calendar, our thoughts inevitably turn to Christmas.

As with many religious festivals, elements of the natural world are woven into the celebrations. Our much loved robin (Erithacus rubecula) is a bird historically associated with the birth of Jesus and adorns many cards featuring winter scenes as well as frequently forming part of the Christmas decorations.

There are many reasons for its close ties with the festive season. The robin is one of the few birds to sing right through the darkest days of winter and can be heard releasing its plaintive notes from leafless boughs when most other birdsong is absent, something 18th century poet William Cowper catches perfectly when writing of a robin he encountered on a winter's walk:

No noise is here, or none that hinders thought.

The redbreast warbles still, but is content

With slender notes, and more than half suppressed

It is, however, stories linking the robin with Christ and of exploits with saints which best explains its Christmas ties. Legend says the robin acquired its red breast through splashes of blood from Jesus while on the cross as it tried to stem the blood flow caused by the crown of thorns. Another version attributes the red breast to the blood from Christ's side as the robin tried to staunch the wound made by the legionary's lance.

Tales also say the robin kept the fire alight for the baby Jesus in the stable, by flapping its wings to keep air circulating. In counties Kerry and Clare it has the Irish name ‘spideog Mhuire' – Mary's robin – because it came to Mary's aid while fleeing to Egypt to escape Herod. As Mary ran she was cut by thorns and brambles, causing her to bleed, but the robin followed, covering all the blood with leaves and debris, to leave no trace.

A 12th century story recounts Scottish saint St Kentigern's links with the robin. As a boy, the saint was disliked at school by his peers because he was loved by their teacher Serf, who had a robin, which he fed daily. One day when Serf was out, the other boys decided they would indulge in play with the robin and as they handled it roughly and tried to snatch it from each other, the bird died in their hands.

They blamed Kentigern, who was not involved in the mischief. When Kentigern heard this, he took the dead robin in his hands and making the sign of the cross over it, said: ‘O Lord Jesus, give back to this little bird the breath of life'. Immediately the robin was restored to life and flew to meet his friend Serf.

Interestingly, much of our knowledge about the behaviour and habits of this universally popular bird is due to the pioneering work carried out by a Co Fermanagh-based civil engineer, James Parsons Burkitt.

Born in Killybegs, Co Donegal, Burkitt was also an experienced field ornithologist who designed and conducted the first population study of a bird, the robin, based on ringing individuals in his garden near Enniskillen in the early 1920s. His work was to prove highly significant as it enabled individual birds to be identified in the field and details of their territorial behaviour, song and threat display recorded.

He proved the longevity of one female robin which he had ringed on December 18 1927 and which he trapped again on July 14 1938 – making it at least 11 years old – "the oldest living robin in the world'' at the time.

 

Famous Volcanoes Overview

 

Volcanoes are one of the most awesome natural events that the world can ever see, and they are also among the most dangerous. Currently there are approximately 1500 active volcanoes in the world but an active volcano can be described as one that has had an eruption at least within the last ten thousand years. There are many volcanoes that have been dormant for a lot longer than that and yet they could be some of the most dangerous if they were ever to explode. There are volcanoes in most of the world and some you would not be able to see even if you were standing on them even though they are some of the most famous volcanoes. Some areas are more active than others, but the most famous one is the Pacific Ring of Fire.

The Ring Of Fire

The Pacific Ring of Fire is the area in the Pacific Ocean, which has the most active volcanoes in the world. By the latest calculations over 75% of the active volcanoes in the world are located here. Because of that, you will find some of the world’s most famous volcanoes in that area. The area extends from the Chilean coast in South America to Alaska, to the East Coast of the Asian continent, down to Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands. There are a total of 452 known volcanoes in the Pacific Ring of Fire which is also known for the severity of its earthquakes.

Most Famous Volcanoes In The Ring Of Fire

Because of the amount of volcano activity in the Ring of Fire, some of the world’s most famous volcanoes can be found here. Some of the names you may recognize right away are Mount Saint Helens in Washington State, Kilauea in Hawaii, Mount Yasur in Vanuatu, Santa Maria in Guatemala, and Sangay in Ecuador all of which are still very much active. Another couple of recognizable names in the Ring of Fire are Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mauna Loa in Hawaii.

World’s Most Active Volcanoes

One thing that is important to note is that most of the famous volcanoes are also the most active in the world. Kilauea in Japan is one of the world’s most active volcano at the moment with its last spew of lava happened in 2011. The Nyamuragira volcano in the Democratic Republic of Congo is the most active volcano in Africa and it has erupted at the very least 34 times since 1882. Mount Etna, which was believed by ancient Romans to be the home of the god of fire Vulcan has a continuous history of eruptions that dates back over 3500 years. Piton de la Fournaise or Le Volcan as it is known to locals at Reunion Island has seen over 150 eruptions since the records show it in the 17^th century.

What Happens When A Volcano Erupts

To understand famous volcanoes and even volcanoes in general it is important to understand eruptions. Before an eruption takes place there is a lot of commotion beneath the surface which involves melted rock. The substance that is created during that commotion is what is later spilled while the eruption takes place. The name of the molten lava that will flow down the side of a volcano is what is known as magma, but before the magma is expelled out it needs to rise and that is created by disturbances of low and high pressures.

The eruption does not have to be the big explosion that people associate with famous volcanoes. There are mild eruptions, which only cause steam blasts. Others are still considered mild but will have lava run down de side of the volcano and ejected ash or rock fragments. There are however more dangerous and stronger eruptions which can cause a lot of damage to the surrounding area. A Vulcanian explosion will contain solidified rock, which will produce a pyroclastic flow.

Volcanoes With The Potential Of Being The Deadliest

Some of the world’s most famous volcanoes have destroyed entire cities and killed everyone in the nearby area. Mount Vesuvius for example destroyed the entire city of Pompey and archeological records show the devastation it caused. There are some volcanoes that could cause the same type of damage to cities today with the difference that the population around those volcanoes is even larger than that of ancient Pompeii.

The city of Kagoshima in Japan has 680,000 people and the Sakurajima volcano located nearby has been experiencing small explosions since 1955. Catania near Mount Etna has 300,000 people in the area, which has seen the dangers of Mount Etna when an eruption destroyed some of its structures in the 1600’s. The 450,000 people in Pasto Colombia have been on guard due to the Galeras Volcano nearby. In 2005 then were forced to wear goggles and facemasks because of an explosion. Seattle’s population of 608,000 live in that shadows of Mount Rainier and though the volcano is quiet for now, its past history is anything but. Finally, close to a million people live in Naples, Italy. Their biggest and scariest neighbor is Mount Vesuvius, which has destroyed an entire city and the surrounding areas in the past. These are just some of the famous volcanoes near people, but there are a lot more.

Super Volcanoes

If the most famous volcanoes listed before were to erupt, they could cause a lot of destruction, but that destruction would be nowhere near to what would happen if a super volcano were to erupt. There are several of these volcanoes and they have caused severe destruction in the past. Their eruptions are measured using the Volcano Eruption index or VEI. The most severe eruptions are those that reach the VEI8 classification and there have been 10 of those eruptions in recorded history, 5 of which were in the US.

What Would Happen If A Super Volcano Erupted Today?

If a super volcano like the one found at Yellowstone Park in the US were to erupt today it would instantly be a famous volcano, but there would not be as many people to tell the story. The last time that the Yellowstone volcano erupted was 640,000 years ago and it is believed that it was the main cause of the latest ice age. If an eruption of that magnitude were to happen today the people nearby would stand no chance as they would be hit by 500 degree lava. Even if the lava does not reach you the ash would and that would cause you to choke to death as you inhale it.

People in other parts of the world would not get away unharmed because the global temperatures would drop by a minimum of 21 degrees. That would cause plant life and animal life to die off, leaving the people in the rest of the world without food and very cold. In other words, the great majority of people would starve.

The problem is that some scientists believe that the volcano at Yellowstone Park erupts once every 600,000 years, and if that is the case then we are overdue. No one knows when one of these famous volcanoes will erupt, but when they do it will be a spectacle that could end life as we know it.